Femoral artery catheterization is a medical procedure in which a catheter is inserted into the femoral artery, usually through a small incision in the groin. The catheter can then be used to measure blood pressure or to inject contrast dye into the artery for angiography. Femoral artery catheterization is commonly used for cardiac catheterization, a procedure that may be used for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. Severe uncontrolled hypertension, unstable arrhythmias, acute cerebrovascular accidents, and severe coagulopathies are relative contraindications against the procedure.

Fractional flow reserve (FFR) is a technique used in interventional cardiac catheterization to determine how much blood flow a coronary artery can supply to the heart muscle without compromising the function of the heart. FFR is measured by passing a small catheter through the coronary arteries and injecting a contrast agent into the artery. FFR is the current standard of care for the evaluation of lesions in intermediate-grade stenosis. It is more precise than non-invasive techniques in determining the functional significance and ischemic potential of the observed lesion.

Glycoprotein Iib/IIia inhibitors are a class of drugs that prevent the binding of fibrinogen to platelets. This class of drugs includes abciximab, eptifibatide, and tirofiban and can be used to treat acute coronary syndromes, including unstable angina and non-ST elevation myocardial infarction that may need precutaneous coronary intervention. It is recommended for patients who are unable to tolerate or have an allergy to P2Y12 inhibitors, and for patients undergoing PCI who may have received P2Y12 inhibitors but have a high risk of thrombus/an aspirin allergy.

Heart failure is a chronic, progressive condition that results from a functional or structural heart disorder. In the United States, the prevalence of heart failure is approximately 6 million, or 1.8% of the US population as of 2021. The prevalence of heart failure in the United States is predicted to increase 46% by 2030. Congestive heart failure is more prevalent in patients who are older.

Heart failure is a chronic, progressive condition that results from a functional or structural heart disorder. Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is a type of heart failure where the left ventricular ejection fraction is greater than 50%. HFpEF can be caused by a variety of factors, including hypertension, diabetes, and obesity. The condition is often diagnosed in people over the age of 50 and is more common in women than men. Patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) have a left ventricular ejection fraction of less than 40%, and patients with heart failure with mildly reduced ejection fraction (HFmrEF) has a left ventricular ejection fraction of 41% to 49%.

High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) is a blood test that measures levels of inflammation in the body. hs-CRP is a reliable marker of inflammation, and elevated levels have been associated with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and atherosclerosis. This test can determine slight changes to normal CRP levels, which would otherwise be missed by standard tests. Elevated high sensitivity CRP results are frequently observed prior to cases of myocardial infarction, stroke, peripheral arterial disease, and sudden cardiac death in otherwise healthy people.

An implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) continuously monitors an individual’s heartbeat and delivers an electric ICD shock when needed to restore a regular heart rhythm. They are used for the primary prevention of sudden cardiac death in individuals with increased risk of life-threatening ventricular tachycardia (VT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF), and for the secondary prevention of sudden cardiac death in individuals with previous sustained VT, VF, or who were resuscitated due to likely VT or VF.

Mitral stenosis (or mitral valve stenosis) is a type of valvular heart disease. The narrowing of the mitral valve orifice can be caused by a number of issues, including infective endocarditis, mitral calcifications, congenital heart defects, and rheumatic heart disease. Rheumatic heart disease mitral stenosis is the most common type of mitral stenosis.

Sodium nitroprusside is a potent, fast-acting, and titrable vasodilator used for a variety of indications approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), including acute heart failure with decompensation, acute hypertensive emergencies, perioperative hypotension induction, and reduction of bleeding during surgery. Off-label uses for nitroprusside include acute ischemic stroke associated with hypertension. Due to the side effect and toxicity profile of nitroprusside, it has partially been replaced by newer agents.

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are two options for the treatment and management of coronary artery disease. Advancements in imaging techniques, including computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, intravascular ultrasound, and optical coherence tomography, have improved the detection of patients’ needs for PCI vs CABG interventions.